Effect of Early Life Stress on Behavior and Cognition

The human brain undergoes rapid development from late gestation to early childhood. The brain structures that are developing or undergoing age-related changes are more vulnerable to the effects of stress. Trauma at different time points in an individual’s life might be associated with different outcomes, depending on the brain structure that was affected at the time of exposure to adversity.

The hippocampus, the amygdala and the frontal lobes of the brain are responsible for development of cognitive and emotional functions. Repeated exposure to stress triggers the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in production of glucocorticoids by the adrenal gland. Glucocorticoids are essential for normal brain maturation and its receptors are expressed throughout the brain. Skewed levels of glucocorticoid impair maturation and survival of different brain cells. Hence, expression of glucocorticoids can have long lasting effects on the regions of the brain that regulate their release.

Exposure to stress when these regions of the brain undergo changes may result in long time cognitive and behavioral defects. The effects of stress at different periods of life interact and may manifest after an incubation period.

Maternal depression, intrauterine under-growth and low birth weight are indices of prenatal stress. Low socio-economic status, maltreatment, sexual abuse and war are considered adverse events causing postnatal stress.

Negative effects of stress in the prenatal period may manifest during childhood in the form of behavioral, neurological and cognitive disturbances. These developmental disorders include unsocial and inconsiderate behavior, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), sleep disturbances as well as psychiatric disorders like depressive symptoms, excessive amygdala functioning (fear reaction) and mood and anxiety disorders. However, quality postnatal care often moderates these negative effects.

The hippocampus continues to develop till the age of two years, and so it is extremely vulnerable to the effects of chronic stress. It has been clearly demonstrated that in children who were physically healthy at birth, severe abuse in the early years of life is associated with reduced brain volume. This reduction in volume decreases with increasing age of onset and increases with increased duration of the maltreatment. Children suffering from long hours of neglect are at higher risk of behavioral problems such as novelty-seeking, addictive behaviors and chronic depression later in life.

The frontal cortex undergoes major development during adolescence. Adolescents exposed to early postnatal stress are at a higher risk of developing depression. Also stress during adolescence may result in various psychopathologies such as anxiety and depression.

In adulthood and old age the brain regions that undergo the most rapid decline as a result of aging are highly vulnerable to the effects of stress hormones. Higher stress results in increased glucocorticoid levels. This in turn affects the frontal lobe and hippocampal volume negatively resulting in cognitive impairments.

This research reiterates the importance of rehabilitation of children affected by war, strife and abuse. Better monitoring of state care or orphanages is also needed. Moreover, we require stricter social policies aimed at protecting the most vulnerable section of the society — the children — in the family home from the long term deleterious effects of stress on brain, behavior and cognition.
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Drugs and Pharmacology

Welcome to the seventeenth edition of Drugs and Pharmacology. Today, we discuss how banning over-the-counter drugs to thwart drug abuse could affect you, how bacteria respond to antibacterials, the link between a popular asthma medication and suicide, how vitamins may actually worsen prostate cancer, and other topics.

Remember, we review the latest blogs related to drugs — medicinal, recreational, interactional, personal, professional, or any other aspect. If you were left out in this round, just leave a comment with your blog entry. You can check out the archives for every edition of this carnival.

For future editions, please remember to submit your blog entries using the online submission form. We will do our best to review and include your entry! Enjoy your readings…

A Dark and Sinister Force for Good writes Pseudo-poppycock:

Let’s take a look at the probable consequences of this action: A drug that anyone can now pick up at any grocery store or drug store for about six dollars will now only be available after paying a doctor upwards of fifty dollars for an office visit. Because the common, inexpensive drug must now be carried in the security of a drug store safe and only dispensed by licensed pharmacists, the cost per unit will have to be raised (to pay for the additional paperwork, among other things). Law-abiding citizens stricken with sinus headaches, allergies, or sinusitis will now have to wait until they can be seen by a doctor before getting any relief at all. The best part of the whole plan, of course, is that this will have almost no measurable effect on the production and sale of meth

Lab Rat writes Cell wall under attack – bacterial response to antibiotics:

The bacterial cell wall is made up of glycopeptide molecules (sugars and proteins joined together) and surrounds the whole cell. Without it, bacteria swiftly loose their integrity and salt-balance across the membrane, which is why many antibiotics target the cell wall in order to kill bacteria. Both for antibiotic resistance, and for surviving conditions that could damage the cell wall, bacteria have a system of monitoring the state of thee cell membrane and responding quickly to any changes.

Healthcare Hacks writes Aspirin may lower risk of cancer fatalities:

Of the group of patients who did not take any aspirin, about 19% died from the disease. However, when the patient took aspirin on a regular basis after their diagnosis, about 15% died from their cancer. When such risk factors as family history and lifestyle were taken into account, the difference between the two groups amounted to a nearly 30% reduction in the risk of cancer death.

Clinical Depression: Symptoms and Treatment writes Is there a Link between Singulair and Depression?:

In January 2009, the FDA announced that an investigation into Merck’s clinical trial data did not discover a link between Singulair (montelukast) and suicidal behavior. The investigation, which began 9 months before, was prompted by a number of reported suicides, especially that of 15-year-old Cody Miller who took the drug and appeared to have no history of mood or behavioral problems.

Scientific Living writes Vaccine Scandal:

Vaccines undergo extremely strict procedures for production. The chance that this was an accident is almost zero. Of all things that could have “accidentally” contaminated a vaccine, this contaminant happened to be a life threatening virus. But who can say for sure whether or not this was an accident.

How To Live a Longer Life writes Vitamin Supplements Can Worsen Prostate Cancer:

There has been a number of studies over the years suggesting a link between multivitamin usage and fatal prostate cancer however a recent study published in May of 2007 in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute tracked more than 300,000 men where roughly 100,000 took a daily multivitamin and 15,000 of which took more than one a day. The results of the study showed that those who took the vitamins more than once a day had a rate of fatal prostate cancer within five years at roughly twice the rate of everybody else.
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Laughter’s the Best Remedy

Groucho Marx once said, “A clown is like an aspirin, only he works twice as fast.” Indeed, research suggests that humor can minimize our perceptions of physical pain. Various theoretical explanations have been offered to explain the analgesic effects of humor, and humor’s potential role in pain therapy appears promising.

Studies exploring the role of humor in pain perception involve showing participants funny videos prior to the “cold presser task,” in which participants submerge their hand into very cold water for as long as possible. Researchers measure the time it takes before the participants declare that the task is painful, indicating “pain threshold,” and the subsequent time that they can bear the pain, known as “pain tolerance.” One study found that when participants view a humorous video, compared to neutral and negative videos in similar length and interest level, they show increased levels of pain tolerance and duration. Intrigued as to which components of appreciating humor drive this effect, another set of researchers explored whether measuring participants’ cheerful mood invoked by humor, their extent of facial expressions of humor appreciation, or their focus on the humorous content of a short clip of “Mr. Bean” differentially effected pain perception. Interestingly, all three conditions yielded increased pain tolerance to the cold presser task.

The biological mechanisms that underlie humor’s effect on pain remain undetermined. However, some suggest that humor and/or laughter release endorphins, which are known to lend analgesic effects. However, this view remains purely speculative, as there is no causal scientific evidence to support the claim. Alternatively, two brain imaging studies offer other insights. That is, when participants view humorous cartoons, compared to non-humorous cartoons, certain brain regions are significantly more active. Among them is the anterior cingulate cortex, which has been shown to activate in response to the affective aspects of pain (i.e. the ‘feeling’ of pain). On the one hand, that the same area is active in response to both kinds of stimuli seems counter intuitive, but it may be that pain states and appreciation of humor rely on the anterior cingulate to detect ‘discrepancy’ in stimuli, and guide the emotional response to the discrepancy. In the case of pain, the discrepancy (i.e. I feel what I should not) is negatively appraised, while the discrepancy perceived in humor (i.e. this is not what I expected in this situation) is appraised positively. This interpretation is supported by the fact that viewing humorous compared to non-humorous cartoons also activates the human ‘reward system,’ brain areas that also light up when we eat chocolate.

While the biology of humor as an anodyne requires further research, medical practitioners, such as Dr. “Patch” Adams, have long noted its soothing effects on patients. As Freud once said,

Humor is a means of obtaining pleasure in spite of the distressing effects that interface with it.
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FOOD HYGIENE

About food hygiene

Anyone can get food poisoning but some people, including babies, children, older people, pregnant women and people with weakened immune systems, are more likely to have serious symptoms. Around 80,000 people in the UK report food poisoning each year.

Food poisoning has a range of symptoms, including diarrhoea, stomach pains, nausea and vomiting. Depending on the cause and the person affected, it can lead to gastroenteritis (inflammation of the stomach and intestines), more serious illness, organ failure or even death.

What causes food poisoning?

Food poisoning is usually caused by micro-organisms (germs), including bacteria, viruses and moulds. The spread of these germs can be prevented by practising good food hygiene.

The most serious types of food poisoning are caused by bacteria. Bacteria multiply best in a moist environment between 5°C and 63°C. Just a single bacterium on an item of food, left out of the fridge overnight, could generate many millions of bacteria by the morning, enough to make you ill if eaten. Storing food below 5°C prevents bacteria from multiplying, and cooking food at temperatures over 70°C will kill off any existing bacteria.

Bacteria that cause food poisoning are found in many foods, including:

• meat and meat products - in particular poultry, minced meat and patés
• seafood
• eggs and raw egg products - in particular mayonnaise
• unpasteurised milk (or milk contaminated after pasteurisation)
• soft and mould-ripened cheeses
• cooked foods - in particular fried rice and pasta (especially if these haven't been cooled and stored properly - see Storing food correctly)
• unwashed fruit and vegetables

How you become ill

Food poisoning from bacteria can occur in different ways.

• Some bacteria release poisons called toxins, which may give you symptoms of food poisoning soon after the food is eaten.
• Other bacteria multiply in the body first before causing symptoms. The delay between eating the contaminated food and developing symptoms is known as the incubation period - this can be a few hours or up to a few days.

Improving hygiene

Maintaining high levels of personal and kitchen hygiene are important and effective ways to stop germs from spreading.

• Wash your hands and nails with hot, soapy water before handling food, between handling cooked and uncooked foods, and after going to the toilet.
• Rinse your hands well and dry them on a clean hand towel, a disposable paper towel, or under a hand dryer. Wet hands transfer germs more effectively than dry hands.
• Use different cloths for different jobs (eg washing up and cleaning surfaces). Wash them regularly on the hot cycle or soak in a dilute solution of bleach.
• Wipe down and disinfect surfaces and utensils regularly, using a detergent or dilute solution of bleach - always read the safety instructions first.
• Wash up using hot, soapy water - use rubber gloves if necessary.
• Don't handle food if you have stomach problems such as diarrhoea and vomiting, or if you're sneezing or coughing frequently.
• Cover up cuts and sores with waterproof plasters.
• If possible, remove rings, watches and bracelets before handling food. Germs can hide under these.

Bacteria can spread from raw food, in particular meat, to food that has already been cooked or is eaten raw, such as salads.

• Use separate chopping boards for preparing raw meat, poultry and seafood and for fresh produce such as salads, fruit and vegetables.
• Never use a marinade that has already been used on raw meat for cooked food, unless it has been boiled thoroughly.
• Always use a clean plate to serve food.
• After using a knife or other utensil on raw meat, clean it thoroughly before using it on other foods.

Storing food correctly

It's very important that food is stored in the right place (eg fridge or freezer) and at the correct temperature.

• Always check labels for guidance on where and how long to store food, in particular, fresh or frozen food.
• Store fresh or frozen food in the fridge or freezer within two hours of purchase - sooner if the weather is hot.
• Allow meal leftovers to cool to room temperature before storing them in the fridge, ideally within two hours of preparation. If necessary, divide leftovers into smaller portions to help food cool more quickly.
• Use up leftovers within two days. Cooked rice should only be kept for one day.
• Store raw food such as meat in airtight containers at the bottom of the fridge to prevent juices or blood from dripping onto other food.
• Defrost frozen foods in the fridge. Place them on a plate or in a container as they defrost so they don't drip on or contaminate other foods.
• Don't overfill the fridge - food may not cool properly.
• Keep the fridge at less than 5°C and the freezer at less than -18°C - consider getting a thermometer.
• Don't store opened tins of food in the fridge - transfer the contents to a suitable airtight container instead.

Cooking food safely

If food isn't cooked at a high enough temperature, bacteria can still survive. The following advice will help you to cook safely.

• Follow the recipe or packet instructions for cooking time and temperature, ensuring the oven is pre-heated properly.
• Food should be piping hot (steaming) before serving.
• Take special care that pork, sausages, burgers and poultry are cooked through and aren't pink in the middle. Using a clean skewer, pierce the meat. When cooked properly, the juices run clear. Lamb and beef joints and steaks can be cooked rare, but must be thoroughly sealed (browned) on the outside.
• Don't cook foods too far in advance. Keep cooked foods covered and piping hot until served.
• When microwaving, stir food well from time to time to ensure even cooking.
• Only reheat food once and serve piping hot.
• Use a food thermometer to check that food is cooked to the right temperature.
• Eggs contain harmful bacteria which can be dangerous to pregnant women, older people and babies. Don't serve eggs with runny yolks, or egg-containing foods that won't be cooked, for example homemade mayonnaise.

Special occasions

Even if you're usually careful about food hygiene, it's very easy to slip up on special occasions such as barbecues, picnics or parties. Here are some tips on how to keep food safe.

• Consider fridge space. Don't buy food too far in advance and transfer drinks bottles/cans to ice-buckets.
• Don't leave party foods that normally need to be refrigerated at room temperature for hours. Serve individual portions and keep leftovers stored in the fridge.
• Keep all serving bowls covered until the last minute.
• When preparing a picnic, take the food out of the fridge at the last minute and use a cool bag to keep it chilled and covered until you eat. Consider taking antiseptic hand wipes. Wash fruit and salad items before you leave.
• For barbecues, only start cooking when the charcoals are glowing red with a layer of grey ash and move the food around the grill. Always check that food is cooked through. Food which is charred on the outside might not be cooked on the inside. Serve food straight away or keep it in a hot oven until you're ready to eat.
• Consider pre-cooking poultry or sausages in the oven, then finish off on the barbecue.
• Prevent cross-contamination by using separate cool bags, plates and utensils for raw and cooked meat.

Eating out

When eating out, it's also important to consider food hygiene. You can't usually inspect the kitchens in restaurants, cafés or pubs, but there are certain warning signs of poor hygiene standards that you can look out for:

• dirty dining areas, toilets, cutlery or crockery
• rubbish and overflowing bins outside - these could attract vermin
• staff with dirty uniforms, dirty fingernails or with long hair not tied back
• hair or insects in food
• raw food and ready to eat food displayed together
• hot food that isn't cooked through properly and cold food that is served lukewarm

If you're concerned about the hygiene standards of a restaurant or takeaway outlet, or you think you may have food poisoning, report the case to the environmental health service of your local authority (council). This will help to ensure that other people don't suffer in the same way.
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Health and hygiene

Keeping yourself in good shape is not just about taking regular exercise and watching what you are eating. Taking care over your appearance is not just for vain people, but essential if you want to keep your hair, teeth and skin feeling fresh and clean. Below are a few basic tips to help you get into a regular routine:

• Taking a bath or shower everyday will reduce unpleasant body smells caused by perspiration (sweating). You may decide to use a deodorant as well. Wash your clothes regularly and change your underwear and socks everyday.
• Wash your hair regularly with a shampoo and conditioner that suits you. Dry scalps that cause dandruff can be easy to deal with. Ask at the chemist for a suitable shampoo. Products are also available is your hair is greasy or dry. If you are black, you hair may be naturally dry so its important to use conditioners to replace the natural oils.
• Drink lots of water, it helps replenish the skin and keeps bodies healthy both inside and out!
• Brush your teeth at least twice a day - in the morning and at night.

Tooth care

Clean teeth and healthy gums feel good and look great. They will help increase your confidence about your appearance and will also keep your mouth and breath fresh.

Good mouth care is essential for healthy teeth and gums. To maintain your teeth it is important to brush them at least twice everyday - once in the morning and once before bed - with a good toothbrush. Choose a fluoride based toothpaste which will help strengthen your teeth. Don't worry too much if your teeth are not brilliant white in colour. They may still be strong and healthy. Many of the brightening toothpastes contain chemicals that can cause harm to your teeth and gums so read the labels carefully.

Choose drinks and foods with low sugar content and visit the dentist on a regular basis throughout your life.
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Health and Physical Fitness

Health and physical activity tips including information on men's and women's health and wellness including advanced nutritional products for the immune system, joint health, weight loss and general health. All five components of fitness and health: strength training, weight management, cardiovascular exercise, nutrition, and flexibility training are discussed in the section of the site. The Top 20 Lessons For Living Longer

By: Sean Barker

You are probably sick of hearing "new" studies telling you to do this or eat that to live longer and feel like you did in your twenties.

Despite all the medical advances available today, the most effective and the most practical advice to living a long and healthy life can be found in our past.

Here are the top twenty time-tested healthy habits that have survived for centuries to increase the quantity and quality of our life.

1. Eat mostly plants.

(Have meat as a side dish instead of the main dish)

2. Put family first.

(Time with family is priceless)

3. Take a walk.

(Our legs are meant to move us, so move)

4. Drink a glass of red wine daily.

(It's been a practice for centuries, it must be good)

5. Reduce and manage stress.

(Stress kills, so avoid it or deal with it)

6. Have a purpose.

(Be excited when you wake up each morning)

7. Get outdoors.

(We came from nature, go back for a visit)

8. Be grateful.

(Appreciate what you got and you will get more)

9. Have fun.

(Do things that you enjoy)

10. Maintain a healthy body weight

(Move more, eat less)

11. Get regular exercise.

(Push and pull heavy things)

12. Love and laugh

(Preferably both at the same time)

13. Snack on nuts

(The most nutrient dense food in the world)

14. Give something back.

(If you want to get, you have to give)

15. Eat a large breakfast.

(Your mother was right...again)

16. Eat a medium lunch

(It's a lunch break, not a lunch buffet)

17. Eat a small dinner

(Enough eating already)

18. Drink plenty of water.

(It's the basis of all living things)

19. Sleep when it's dark.

(There is a reason why we can't see in the dark)

20. Learn new things.

(You live, you learn)

Get your FREE Fat Loss report "The Truth About Fat Loss, How To Finally Lose That Beer Belly" ..........

Sean is a Certified Personal Trainer and a proud and busy Dad. Sean has been involved in the health and fitness industry for over 15 years and have appeared in High Performance Muscle Magazine, been on health and fitness radio shows and was selected as a sponsored athlete by one of the top supplement nutrition companies in the world. His popular Dad Fitness fat loss workouts have helped Dads around the world lose fat, gain muscle, and get lean in less than 3 hours per week. For more information on the Dad Fitness workouts that will help you burn fat without spending hours in the gym.......
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